Mingqi (冥器), rendered in English as “spirit articles”, are a broad and very interesting class of ancient Chinese funerary material made specifically for the dead. Eastern Zhou philosopher Xunzi (298-238 BC), defines them as, “Spirit articles that resemble real objects but cannot be put to use”. [1] Objects classed as mingqi became distinct from other elements of tomb assemblage, such as everyday objects used by the deceased in life or Shengqi (生器) in the early 3rd century BC. [2]
Mingqi were made from a wide variety of materials into an even wider variety of objects. As the Chinese believed death to be a transition and extension of the living world, mingqi worked in concert with the other elements of the tomb, for example, the wall paintings and the architecture of the tomb itself to comfort and delight the deceased. [3] As "mingqi" encompasses such a broad range of objects, we will be sticking to figural terracotta statues from the Qin to Tang Dynasties for the purposes of this article. Not only because they are exceedingly beautiful, but also because they only gained popularity relatively recently in the eyes of the Western collecting world, entering public discourse and museums mostly in the mid-20th Century. [4] Our journey through the history of these early Chinese terracotta sculptures will focus on how they were made, how they developed in terms of style and subject matter, and how their function and significance are inextricably linked to their funerary context.
The Beginning of Figural Mingqi: Qin (221-206 BC) and Han Dynasties (202 BC-AD 220)
One of the first, and the most famous collection of mingqi is the “terracotta army”, a truly massive assemblage of life-size soldiers, chariots, and horses, buried in pits and flanking the tomb of the Emperor Qin Shi Shang (221-210 BC). Created presumably to defend the emperor in the afterlife, over 7000 soldiers were estimated to have been made. They were sculpted with supreme attention to detail, and set out in military formation, with some even holding real bronze weapons and bearing specific attributes of the many ranks of the Qin army. [5] They are a testament to the strength and formidable nature of the short-lived Dynasty.
Figural mingqi from the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 206) survive in great numbers and are generally more animated than their Qin predecessors, despite their smaller size . This was essential for their purpose of providing sustenance, service, and entertainment for the deceased during the afterlife. [6] While military figures continued to be made in great numbers, for example in tombs in the Xiangan and Xi-an region, Han dynasty sculptors are most notable for their depictions of entertainers. [7] Acrobats, musicians, and groups of dancers filled contemporary tombs, along with other highly-idealised depictions of hunters, servants, and storytellers. Animals are very dynamically rendered, with birds, dogs, and pigs being particularly common.
The most notable sculptural preference of the Han Dynasty was mingqi in the form of buildings, made to provide the practical support system needed in life for the dead. Examples include entire granaries, wells, farms, and watchtowers, all recreated on a miniature terracotta scale with minute attention to detail. [8] While they crop up occasionally in the funerary art of later Dynasties, it is during the Han period that these architectural models became the sculptures par excellence.
Mingqi Divided: The Six Dynasties (AD 220-589)
The collapse of the Han Empire was followed by a period of chaos and regional conflict known as the Six Dynasties. This change in the political landscape led to a swift reaction against the elaborate tombs of the Han, considered to be emblematic of their moral downfall. [9] In terms of mingqi production, trends were split between the South and North. Though not as widespread, enough examples have surfaced from tombs to tell us that the pre-existing preferences for architectural models and human sculpture prevailed in Southern China. Due to the popularity of Daoism, animal sculptures and elements were also more readily infused into funerary practice. In terms of style, however, these figural mingqi are simplified and less animated. [10]
Mingqi were, however, very popular with the Northern Dynasties, with particularly high-quality examples coming from the Northern Wei Dynasty (AD 386–534). Here again, existing trends in subject matter persisted, but a considerable number of new figures were added to the repertoire (Fig. 5). Human and animal-faced guardians (zhenmouyong and zhenmoushou), with exaggerated features and body parts, became popular and were placed outside of the above-ground sections of tombs. [11] Camels appear in the 3rd Century and become increasingly common as part of an upswing of popularity in pack animals. [12] Used to transport military goods, traders, and occasionally nobles around China’s northern deserts, their usefulness in the afterlife is apparent. Other popular figures not yet mentioned included civil officials, shamans, and pack-animals.
The Golden Age of Mingqi: Sui (AD 581-618) and Tang Dynasties (AD 618-907)
The reunification of China under the short-lived Sui dynasty, followed by the long and prosperous reign of the Tang Dynasty, brought about a level of economic prosperity and stability not seen in China for centuries. Tang dynasty ceramics became some of the most sought-after pieces in the world, blending the artistic styles of the North and South Dynasties and combining this with the increased cross-cultural influences brought about by trade along the Silk Road with Sasanid Persia, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia (Fig. 7). [13] This mix of factors led to burials once again becoming increasingly elaborate, despite the government’s attempt to curtail this, and several innovations in the corpus of Tang figural mingqi.
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Colburn Clydesdale, H., 2009, “The Vibrant Role of Mingqi in Early Chinese Burials.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mgqi/hd_mgqi.htm
Susanne Griefe, S., and Shenpeng Y., 2001, Das Gtab des Bin Wang: Wandmalereine der Ostlichen Han-zeit in China. Mainz.
Hung, W., 2009, “Rethinking East Asian Tombs: A Methodological Proposal.” Studies in the History of Art, 74, 138–165.
Li, Z., Bower, V., He, L. & Sensabaugh, D. A., 2010, Chinese Ceramics: From The Paleolithic Period Through The Qing Dynasty. Yale University Press.
Sensabaugh, D. A. 2001, “Guardians of the Tomb.” Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin, 56–65.
Sewell, J. V., 1976, “T’ang Dynasty Tomb Pottery.” Bulletin of the Art Institute of Chicago (1973-1982), 70(2), 2–6.
Xunzi, & Watson, B., 1963, Hsün Tzu : basic writings / translated by Burton Watson. Columbia University Press.
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